语言学教程 我的复习

语言学概论

Chapter: Invitation to linguistics

一、language

1、 Definition

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用

于交际的一套有声符号系统。It evolves within specific historical, social and cultural

contents. (human specific)

2、 The history（origin）

(1) The bow-wow theory 模仿说（imitation）

People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. Onomatopoeic

words(拟声词)

(2) The pooh-pooh theory本能说（instinct）

In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they Utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and

joy .Interjections like oh ,ah ai yo.

(3) The yo-he-ho theory号子说（rhythmic grunts）

As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts(咕哝) which

gradually developed into chants and then into languages.

(4) The divine-origin theory神授说（creation）

(5) The invention theory 人造说（invention）

(6) The evolutionary theory进化说（evolution）

3、 design features of language语言的普遍特征

 language distinguishes human beings form animals in that it is far more sophisticated

than any animals communication system.

Eg.(philosopher Bertrand Russell ) no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot

tell you that his parents were poor but honest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很

穷但是很务实的话来

 design features

(1) Arbitrariness任意性

There is no logical connection between sounds and meaning.(Saussure first refers

to the fact that the forms of a linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their

meaning.) We do not know why the book is called the book.

(2) Duality二元性

It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the

primary level are composed of elements the secondary level and each of the two

level has its own principles of organization.

(3) Creativity创造性

it means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness(递归性)。

Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless

sentence.

(4) Displacement移位性:

Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from the

immediate situations of the speaker.

(5) Culture transmission文化传递性:

Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturally

transmitted.

4、 the function of language语言的功能

（1） Informative信息功能 ：

The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people

often use it to communicate new information.

（2） interpersonal function人际功能：

It is the most important sociological use of language. The interpersonal function

means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.

（3） performative 施为功能

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of

persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of

children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.

（4） Emotive function感情功能

The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so

crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or

something.

（5） phatic communion寒暄功能

The phatic communion means the social interaction of language. such ritual

exchanges as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable

relationship between people without any factual content.

（6） recreational function娱乐功能

The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,

such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

（7） metalingual function元语言功能

The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I

can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the

word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.

二、linguistic

1

、

definition

It is the systematic investigation of the common features of all natural human

languages.

2、main branches of linguistic

(1) Phonetics语音学

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory

phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音

(2) Phonology音系学

Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of

speech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节

的 形状。

(3) Morphology形态学

Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal

units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.研究单词内部组成

(4) Syntax句法学

Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a

language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 研究组词造句的规则

(5) Semantics语义学

Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.语言的意义

(6) Pragmatics语用学

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.研究语言在环境中的意义

3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学

Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics,

which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.

（1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学

Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and

producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.

（2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学

Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and

society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.

（3）Anthropological linguistics人类语言学

Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a

community.

（4）Computational linguistics计算机语言学

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of

computers to process or produce human language

.

4、 the principles of linguistic study语言学研究的规则

exhaustiveness objectivity consistency economy

5、Important distinctions in linguistics几对重要的区别性概念

（1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究

（2）Synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时

（3）Langue & parole语言与言语

（4）Competence and performance语言能力与语言应用

Chapter two: speech sounds

(two major areas of study: phonetics and phonology)

Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which

speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express

meaning.

 Phonetics语音学

1、definition:

Phonetics is the study of production, transmission, perception .description and

classification transcription(标记) of speech sounds.

2、three branches of phonetics

(1) Articulatory phonetics (physiological phonetics生理语言学) 发音语言学

the study of the production of speech sounds

(2) Acoustic phonetics （physical phonetics物理语言学）声学语言学

the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech

(3)Auditory phonetics （psychological phonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学

the study of perception of speech sounds

Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.

3、speech sounds: are sounds that convey meaning

Are sounds that are systematically used in human linguistic

communication.

4、speech organs发音器官

Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of

speech.

【the lungs 肺 the trachea or windpipe 气管the throat喉（larynx 喉 pharynx咽

vocal foldscords声带） the nose鼻 the mouth口】-----vocal tract声道

The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:

the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities

（pharynx the nasal cavities the oral cavities）.

5、the IPA chart国际音标图 =International Phonetic Alphabet

First version: August 1888 last version : 2005

Main principles:

 a separate letter for each distinctive sound一音一符

 The same symbol should be used for that sound in any

language in which it appears.同音同符

 The alphabet was to consist of as many roman alphabet letters

as possible.

 Using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely

necessary.变音符号

6、classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类

（1） vocal & consonant (according to the articulatory characteristics)

(the obstruction of airstream气流受阻与否)

Vocal (元音)： sounds produced without the obstruction of airstream.

Consonant（辅音）:sounds produced with the obstruction of airstream.

（2）voiceless sound & voiced sound

(the vibration of vocal cord声带的振动与否)

Voiceless sound（清音）：when the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through

easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.

Consonant[p s t f k]

Voiced sound(浊音)：when the vocal cords are close together, the airstream causes

them to vibrate against each other and the reluctant sound

is said to be voiced. Consonants[b z d v g]

7、classification of consonants 辅音的分类

[t]: voiceless stop alveolar [l ]:voiced alveolar approximant

[h]:voiceless glottal fricative [m]:voiced bilabial nasal

Manner of articulation发音方式

Stopplosive爆破音

P b t d k g

Fricative摩擦音

Affricate塞擦音

F v s z h

Place of articulation发音部位

Bilabial双唇音

P b m w

Labiodental唇齿音

f v

Dental齿音

Alveolar齿龈音

Post-alveolar后齿

龈音

t d s z l n

j

K g

h

Approximant中通

音

Lateral边音

Nasal鼻音

W j

L

M n

Palatal硬腭音

Velar软腭音

Glottal声门音

8、classification of vowels 元音分类

 Vocal glides滑音--- monophthongs [i] and diphthongs[ei] 单元音和双元音

 The height of the tongue raising----high mid low

 The position of the highest part of the tongue-----front central back

 The length of tenseness of the vocal----long(tense) short(lax)

 Lip rounding---rounded unrounded 圆唇 非圆唇

E.g.[i:] high front tense unrounded vocal

[u] high back lax rounded vocal

[e]倒着写 mid central lax unrounded vocal

9、cardinal vocals are a set of arbitrary reference points established in the

description of vocals

10、the vocals of RP :the standard pronunciation of southern British English ,known as

RP----received English

11、coarticulation协同发音

The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.

Anticipatory coarticulation逆协同发音: If the sound becomes more like the following

sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as

anticipatory coarticulation.

Perseverative coarticulation顺协同发音: If the sound displays the influence of the

preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is

perseverative coarticulation.

Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.

Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.

12、phonetic transcription语音标记（标音法）

It is method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way以系统

一致的方式记录语音

二、phonology音系学

1、definition

It is the study of sound patterns in a given language.(language-specific)

phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of

speech sounds and the shape of deals with the sound system of a language

by treating phoneme as the point of departure.

2、phone音素 [] phoneme 音位/ / allophone音位变体

Speech sound------phone

Phoneme (Distinctive sound) : A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can

signal a difference in meaning.

Allophone (Non-distinctive): Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its

allophones.

3、 Phonological processes音位过程

（1） phonological rules音系学规则

Assimilation同化refers to the process or result of one sound taking on some

characteristics of a neighboring sound.

（2）Distinctive features区别性特征

4、suprasegmentals超音段特征

Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound

segments.

Four principles:

 Syllables音节： onset节前 + rhyme 韵基 （peak or nucleus节峰+code节尾）

 Stress重音:refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.

 Tone音调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of

vibration of the vocal cords.

 Intonation语调:

Chapter there: form Morpheme to phrase

(morpheme and morphology)

The grammatical hierarchy of a language:

clause complex

Clause

Word group/phrase

Word

morpheme

一、morpheme词素，语素------------

1、definition

Morpheme is the smallest unit of language In regard to the relationship between

expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller

units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.

Morphology形态学 studies the internal structure of words and word information rules.

Morphemes and word formation process语素和形成过程

Two fields------inflectional morphology曲折形态学（研究语法的曲折变化及表达）

Derivational morphology派生形态学（研究构词法及词义表达）

2、Types of Morphemes

(1). Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和粘合词素

（In terms of their capacity of occurring alone)

Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute

words by themselves, are free morphemes.

Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called

bound morphemes.

(2). Root词根, affix 词缀and stem词干

 A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without

destroying the meaning. (can be free or bound)

 An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only

when added to another morpheme. ( it is a bound morpheme) ----prefix

suffix infix

 A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional

affix can be added.

(3). Inflectional affix屈折变化（反映语法关系） ：

Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes

derivational affix派生变化（反映词性关系）：

Derivational affixes can be prefixes or often changes the lexical meaning

e.g. Friendships --------stem(friend+ship)

friend---root ship---inflectional suffix s----derivational suffix

3. morpheme and allomorph语素变体

An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. (map---maps)

4. morphological change形态学的变化

Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.

The plural forms of nouns have also changed.

二、word词

1、definition定义

Word is a unit of linguistic expression that has universal intuitive recognition by narrative

speakers.

2、lexical items词条 refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms.

( Boy and boys are one word, but are two lexical items. )

3、 Identification of words词的识别

 Stability: chairman-----manchair unacceptable

 Relative uninterruptibility

By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even

when there are several parts in a word. * dis appoint ment.

 A minimum free form

4、 classification of words词的分类

 Variable and invariable words变化词和非变化词

Variable words----they have inflective changes. Verb, noun and adjective

Invariable words----they do not have inflective endings. Conjunction and preposition

 Grammatical words and lexical words 虚词和实词

Grammatical word----they serve to link together different content parts. Determiner ,

pronoun and preposition

Lexical words-----they carry the main content of a language. Nouns ,verbs and

adjectives

 Closed-class words and open-class words封闭词类和开放词类

Open-class words------it is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.

noun, verb , adjective and adverb

Closed-class words------it is one whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronoun,

preposition, conjunction and article

 Word class （=parts of speech）

Main class---noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection

and article numeral

Particles小品词 ----infinitive maker to not do up

Auxiliaries助动词

Pre-form代形词-----so did there

Determiners限定词

三、 word formation构词法-------

1、the inflectional way of formation

Inflection indicates grammatical relation by adding inflectional affixes, which do not

change the grammatical class of stems to which they are attached to.

Table—tables talk---talks talked talking boy---boy’s

2、the derivational way of formation

Derivation(word formation), in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new

words are formed.

 Derivation派生词

It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.

 compound合成词

definition-----it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,

or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,

two kinds------the endocentric compound向心复合词（偏正结构） seif-control

the exocentric compound离心复合词（动宾结构） cutthroat

 conversion转换法 =zero derivation

3、lexical change词汇变化

Invention

/coinage

新创词

Blending

混合词

definition example remarks

新创词常出现在科技，经

济等领域

两个单词混合在一起构成

新词

It comes from the Kodak

invention of new Google

entities

A process of Motor+hotel

forming a new

--motel汽车旅馆

word by

combining parts

of other words

A long word is Aeroplane-plane

shortened by Advertisement-ad

clipping the front Influenza-flu

part or the back

part or both

It is made up WTO

from the first

letters of the

names of an

organization

Abbreviation

缩写词

也称clippig

Acronym

首字母缩写词

将几个单词的首字母组合

一起而形成的词

Back-information A shorter word is Edit------editor

例子中，editor edit

derived by Televise--television

or是被人想象出来的后缀 逆构词法

deleting an

imagined affix

from a longer

form that already

exists

Analogical

creation

类推构词

Borrowing

外来词

Class shift

Co-existence of Work---worked

two forms, wrought

regular and

irregular

Borrow from

Cancer来自于拉

other language

丁语

英语中的动词有规则和不

规则两种形式

直接从外语中借来

5、 Phonological change音素变化

 Loss laboratory

 Addition

 Metathesis调整

 Assimilation同化

 Dissimilation异化

6、 Morpho-syntactical change语法变化

 .Morphological change形态变化

The form of inflectional affixes may also change.

 Syntactical change句法变化

There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words

7、 Semantic change语义变化

 Broadening

 Narrowing

 Meaning shift

 Class shift

 Folk etymology

8、 Orthographic change拼写变化

Chapter 4 from word to text

一、syntax句法学

1、definition定义

It is the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures and

the study of the rules governing sentence formation.

2、syntactic relations句法关系

 Positional relation(word order)位置关系==horizontal relations chain relations

Syntagmatic relation横组合关系

It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. saussure

Eg. The boy kicked the ball.(the ball kicked the boy?)

---------a sentence must meet syntactic condition and semantic condition

 Relation of substitutability替换关系

（Saussure）associative relations (Hjemslev)paradigmatic relations纵聚合关系

Vertical relations垂直关系 choice relations选择关系

It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in

sentences with the same structure.同一类型的词所具备的的句法关系

E.g. The -------------(man/boy/girl) smiles

 Relation of co-occurrence共现关系

It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the

occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a determiner or a

particular part of a sentence.

Eg (preceded by) NP (followed by)

A pretty girl smiles

------ a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective and followed

by a verbal phrase.

3、 grammatical construction and its constituents语法结构与成分

（1）、Grammatical construction

On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external

外部的句子短语）and internal properties（内部的主谓成份）.

（2）Immediate constituents(IC analysis)直接成份分析

Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a

sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in

turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until

the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with

brackets（圆括号） or shown with a tree diagram树形图法）. E.g.

Poor John ran away. →

(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).

(2)

Poor

John

ran

away

Its advantages: the clear demonstration of the internal structure of a

construction and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.

Eg.

The sentence leave the book on the shelve may mean put it there or do not touch it.

The son of pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of pharaoh’s son法老儿子的女儿是

法老的孙女

（3）、endocentric and exocentric construction

The two main type of analyzing the syntactic constructions

Depends on their distribution and the relation between their constituents

 Endocentric construction 向心结构

An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally

equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents,

which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.

Noun phrases verb phrases adjective phrases

Very late(very---this constituent is subordinate to the Head—late)

These two oldest stone bridges

Will be leaving

two main types--------(depends on the relation between constituents)

----coordination并列 ：and or (recursiveness)

----subordination从属: modifier two boys swimming in the lake

 Exocentric construction离心结构

The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction

whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its

constituents.

Basic construction the boy smiled

prepositional phrase he hid behind the door

predicate(verb+object)construction he kicked the ball.

connective(be+complement)construction John seemed angry

4、 syntactic function语法功能

it shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic

pattern in which it is used.

 Subject主：it refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case

To be the doer of the action

Grammatical subject and logical subject

 Predicate谓

It refers to a major constituent of sentence in a binary analysis in

which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were

considered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states

that relate to the subject.

 Object宾

It refers to the receiver or goal of an anction.

Direct object and indirect object

Case labels: the accusative case for direct object主格

The dative case for indirect object与格

 Predicators谓语结构

 Modifiers修饰语

 Complements补语

5、 category语法范畴

it refers to the classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to

the defining properties of these general units.

 number数

it is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying

such contrasts as singular and plural.--------nouns

 gender性

it displays contrasts as masculine（男性） feminine （女性）and neuter（中

性）,animate

 case格

the case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the

syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.

Nominative(主格), accusative宾格 genitive所有格 dative与格（介词）

How to realize a combination of preposition and noun?

---------inflection : teacher—teacher’s

---------following a preposition: with/to a man

--------word order: John kicked Peter; Peter kicked John

 agreement一致关系

subject and predicate主谓一致

determiner and noun修饰词与被修饰词之间

 government

6、 phrase, clause and sentence结构类型

7、 Recursiveness 递归性--------to extend sentences

 Conjoining连接（并列）

 Embedding嵌入（附和）

8、 beyond the sentence(=text linguistic and discourse analysis)篇章结构

 sentential connection

 cohesion