自考00832 英语词汇学-笔记(根据考纲标记重点)

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)

Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins

and meanings of words.

The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：

English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological

structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic

structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.

The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：

English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as

morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文

体论） and lexicography(词典学)

The reason for a student to study English lexicology：

According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be

beneficial for students of English.

A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules

of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary

and consciously increase their word power. The information of the

historical development and the principles of classification will give them

a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize,

classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their

sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage,

and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working

knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference

books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual

study.

Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary

Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has

a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form

of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can

function alone in a sentence

Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical

relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and

the actual thing and idea itself”

Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet

was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to

represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly

than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates

by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of

enriching the English vocabulary

Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary

Classification of English Words：

By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary

By notion:content words&functional words

By origin:native words&borrowed words

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The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary

accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.

Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important

part of vocabulary.

The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):

1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相

对稳定性）

3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭

配性）

没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang

（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古

语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or

expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)

Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five,

frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)

Native Words and Borrowed Words

Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are

words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes.

(mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in

style (2)frequent in use

Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign

languages.(80% of modern EV)

4 Types of loan words:

1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))

2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their

original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)

3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see

(from China)

4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the

form,but their meanings are borrowed

Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary

The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)

The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）

The Eastern set:

（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：

Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.

（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.

(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.

(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.

The Western set:

(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.

(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance

languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.

(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.

(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：

Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic)

etc.

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The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:

1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high

inflected language.

2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections

3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words

come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings

were mostly lost with just a few h has evolved from a

synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.

Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):

1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing

materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)

2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but

create many more new useages of the words.

3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words

Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English

vocabulary though quite insignificant.

Chapter 3 Word Formation I

Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words

Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ

in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning

Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)

（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and

can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is

one that can stand by itself. (independent).

（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand

by itself.

Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词

缀)

Affixes can be put into two groups:

1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words

to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as

inflectional morphemes.

2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.

B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem,

whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.

Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）

Morpheme(词素)

Bound root prefix

bound derivational

affix suffix

inflectional

Root and stem（词根和词干）

The differences between root and stem:

A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without

total loss of identity.

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A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in

a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes

could be a root.

Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)

tion词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding

word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.

（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a

prefixes to stems.

1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀):

un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,y(not obey)

2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)

3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo-

duct(bad behaviour)

4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：

arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,u

ltra-,under-,ect. overweight

5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前

缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- -nuclear

6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-,

etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)

7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-

etc. monorail(one rail)

8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，

semi-，ual(concerning two languages)

9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-,

vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)

(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding

suffixes to stems.

1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb

suffixes

nding复合法 （also called composition）

Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems

Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带

连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)

Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）

（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower

pot

（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head

（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep

sion转类法

Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class

to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）

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ng拼缀法

Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words

or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke

+ fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN

ng截短法

Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original

and using what plane from airplane, phone from

telephone. 四种形式：

1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone)

2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)

3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)

4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)

my首字母缩写法

Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters

of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases

and technical terms.

（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter

by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)

（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters

but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign

language)

-formation（逆生法，逆构词）

Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.

It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.

(greed from greedy)

From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):

Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人

名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）

Chapter 5 Word Meaning

The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)

Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It

is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with

the help of context, it can refer to something specific.

Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human

cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.

Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense

of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with

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other expressions in the language.’

Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic

symbol and its meaning.

1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their

meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or

noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.

E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.

2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the

meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail,

miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.

3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations

suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection

between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot

of the mountain(foot)

4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains

the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather

Types of meaning(词义的类别)

tical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or

relationships (becomes important only in actual context)

l Meaning （词汇意义）

(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)

Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and

associative meaning(关联意义)

1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延

意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of

word-meaning.

2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented

to the conceptual meaning.

[4types:

（1） Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by

the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例

如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)

（2） Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make

them appropriate for different contexts.

（3） Affective（感情意义） ：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards

the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义

appreciative & pejorative

（4） Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested

by the words before or after the word in discussion.]

Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）

Polysemy（多义关系）

Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:

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onic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view,

polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the

semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary

meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.

2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed

as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain

historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived

meaning.

Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:

1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning

stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in

every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)

2. concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning

of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts

until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally

developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)

3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the

primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related

only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be

traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.

4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development

leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In

many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.

Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either

identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or

spelling.

Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)

1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound

and spelling, but different in meaning.

2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different

in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)

3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different

in spelling and meaning.

Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)

1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)

2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )

3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)

The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词

的区别)：

1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which

happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which

has several distinguishable meanings.

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2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are

from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.

3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联):

The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one

central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with

one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under

one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.

Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are

identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often

employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or

ridicule.

Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which

have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .

Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :

(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are

words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in

grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and

associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly

specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]

(2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar

or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of

meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g:

change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,

idle/lazy/indolent)

Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :

1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid,

leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)

2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）

3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用

法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer,

drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.

4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the

upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be

in two minds, help-lend one a hand.

Discrimination of Synonyms

(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and

intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)

(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the

stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same

denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：

answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,

unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：

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policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：

ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful,

list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )

(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but

difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations

and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let

sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)

Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms

can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.

Types of Antonyms:

1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent

oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of

the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in

comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very”

to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)

2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in

terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young,

rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in

comparison with the other.

3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.

（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy,

receive-give）

Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):

1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)

2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym

3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）

4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity,

so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)

The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）

1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.

2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the

sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，

weal and woe哀乐)

3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting

idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste,

less speed.)

Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic

inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of

another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal

Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which

are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the

reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.

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Semantic Field(语义场)

Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.

e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the

semantic field of ‘fruits’)

The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in

different language.

e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐， 妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的

妻子” in Chinese.(122)

Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变

Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing

constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is

even more unstable than the form.

Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)

ion /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the

widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which

originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g:

manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher,

companion)

ing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening

meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a

narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have

a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys

a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor,

meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is

turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]

ion /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which

words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance.

[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister,

chamberlain ]

ation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good

origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in

derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly,

knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]

er(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing

but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of

semantic transfer.

Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)

-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):

1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and

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discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g:

pen, car, computer.

2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads

into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.

3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and

euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow,

humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to

psychological reasons.

stic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused

by internal factors with in the language system.

1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb,

private-private soldier

2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast

3)analogy类推:

Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境

Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede

or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to

include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.

Two types of context（语境的种类）

1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In

a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which

embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.

(look out, weekend, landlord )

stic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense,

it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It

may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两

类：

1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together

with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)

2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning

of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g:

become)

The role of context(语境的作用)

ation of ambiguity(消除歧义)

1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.

2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity

如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a

little

tion of referents(限定所指)

如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context

ion of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)

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1)definition

2)explanation

3)example

4)synonymy

5)antonymy

6)hyponymy（上下义关系）

7)relevant details

8)word structure

Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语

Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable

from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom

may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions

（俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English

vocabulary.

Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）

ic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their

individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the

meaning of the whole idiom.

The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical

relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.

ural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a

large extent un changeable.

1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced

2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed

3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an

article.

4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable

The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯

Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）

1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)

2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语 （as poor as a church mouse）

3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语 （look into）

4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语 （tooth and nail 拼命）

5 .sentence idioms 句式习语 （never do things by halves）

Use of idioms（习语的使用）

tic features（文体色彩）：

1）colloquialisms（俗语）

2）slang （俚语）

3）literary expressions（书面表达）

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The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指

派）different meanings.

ical features(修辞色彩)

1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：

（1）alliteration头韵法

（2）rhyme尾韵法

2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）

（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout]

（2）repetition 重复[out and out]

（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]

s of speech（修辞格）

（1）simile明喻

（2）metaphor暗喻

（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen

（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread

（5）Personification拟人法

（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)

（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble

Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：

on增加

on删除

ement替换

on-shifting位置转移

bering分解

Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典

Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with

information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules

and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.

Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):

ngual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词

典都是双语的

(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The

headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.

(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese

D, A Chinese-English D)

stic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）

（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their

usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical,

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function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的

（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:

1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本

身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not

pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.

2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic

D and encyclopedia ()

dged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词

典)

（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning,

pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function,

spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and

homonyms(同音异意)

（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]

（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about

50,000 entries or fewer

lized dictionaries（专用词典）

concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such

diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in

language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other

subjects.

Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用)

1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included

in the dictionary

2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary

Content of the dictionary（词典的内容）

1. spelling

2. pronunciation

3. definition

4. usage

5. grammar

6. usage notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释

7. etymological information词源信息

8. supplementary matter补充事项

9.

Three good general dictionaries （3本常用字典）

n dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)

《朗文当代英语词典》 新版：特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③

language notes

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s COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯

合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal

with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages

3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典

修订版》：首版1978年。

（1）has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000

multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs.

（2）revised some old entries

（3）keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the

dictionary easy to use

（4）boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its

Chinese items.

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